Key figures: Park Geun-hye (Saenuri Party, president-elect), Moon Jae-in (Democratic United Party), Ahn Cheol-soo (independent, withdrew), Lee Myung-bak (outgoing president)
Overview
On December 19, 2012, South Korea held its 18th presidential election, electing Park Geun-hye of the ruling Saenuri (New Frontier) Party as the nation’s 18th president with 51.55% of the vote (15,773,128 votes). She defeated Moon Jae-in of the Democratic United Party, who received 48.02% (14,692,632 votes). Voter turnout reached 75.8% — the highest since 1997. The margin of approximately 1.08 million votes was the narrowest presidential victory since South Korea’s 1987 democratic transition. Park’s election made her the first female president in South Korean history and the first woman directly elected as head of state in East Asia.
Background and Candidates
South Korea’s constitution limits presidents to a single five-year term, barring re-election. Outgoing President Lee Myung-bak (served 2008–2013), also of the Saenuri Party, was constitutionally ineligible to run.
Park Geun-hye
Park (born February 2, 1952) was a veteran four-term National Assembly member and the daughter of former President Park Chung-hee, who governed South Korea from 1963 until his assassination in October 1979. Her father’s legacy was deeply contested: simultaneously remembered as the architect of South Korea’s export-led economic miracle — per capita GDP rose from approximately $100 in 1963 to $1,700 by 1979 — and as an authoritarian ruler who suppressed civil liberties, dissolved the National Assembly, and ruled by decree under the Yushin Constitution.
In August 1974, a North Korean sympathizer named Mun Se-gwang attempted to assassinate Park Chung-hee during Liberation Day ceremonies in Seoul; the attacker missed the president but shot and killed his wife, Yuk Young-soo — Park Geun-hye’s mother. The 22-year-old Park subsequently assumed a quasi-first-lady role for the remaining years of her father’s administration.
Moon Jae-in
Moon (born January 24, 1953) was a human rights lawyer and close ally of progressive President Roh Moo-hyun (2003–2008), having served as Roh’s presidential chief of staff. Roh’s 2009 suicide — following a corruption investigation shortly after leaving office — was a defining emotional touchstone for the liberal opposition and shaped Moon’s entire political identity.
Ahn Cheol-soo
Software entrepreneur Ahn Cheol-soo initially polled in the high 20s and represented a centrist alternative to both major parties. He withdrew from the race in November 2012 and endorsed Moon, hoping to consolidate the anti-Saenuri vote — but the late withdrawal disrupted the opposition campaign’s momentum in its final weeks.
Campaign Issues
The election turned on several interconnected issues:
- Chaebol reform and economic democratization: South Korea’s economy was dominated by large family-controlled conglomerates (Samsung, Hyundai, LG, SK Group, Lotte). Park surprised observers by adopting “economic democratization” language — a progressive framing that acknowledged public unease about corporate concentration — while Moon proposed more direct regulatory intervention
- North Korea policy: Park advocated a cautious “Trustpolitik” or trust-building process with Pyongyang, replacing the liberal “Sunshine Policy” engagement of the Roh era; Moon favored renewed economic engagement and dialogue
- Social welfare expansion: Moon proposed significantly expanded healthcare coverage, education support, and retirement benefits; Park emphasized job creation through growth
- NIS election interference: Shortly before election day, allegations emerged that the National Intelligence Service (NIS) had conducted psychological operations on domestic social media — posting anti-Moon comments through dozens of operatives — in violation of election law. NIS director Won Sei-hoon was later convicted in 2014 for directing these operations, raising lasting questions about the legitimacy of the 2012 result
Election Results
| Candidate | Party | Votes | Percentage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Park Geun-hye | Saenuri Party | 15,773,128 | 51.55% |
| Moon Jae-in | Democratic United Party | 14,692,632 | 48.02% |
| Others | Various | ~255,000 | 0.43% |
Registered voters: 40,507,842
Turnout: 30,721,459 (75.8%)
Park performed strongest in the conservative Gyeongsang provinces of the southeast (her father’s base) and among voters aged 50 and above. Moon dominated in Jeolla province (the traditional progressive stronghold) and among voters under 40. Turnout was exceptionally high in both bases, reflecting the intensity of partisan mobilization.
Park’s Presidency and Removal from Office
Park Geun-hye was inaugurated on February 25, 2013. Her presidency launched the “Northeast Asia Peace and Cooperation Initiative” as a regional diplomatic framework. Within weeks, it faced its first major test: North Korea conducted its third nuclear test on February 12, 2013, generating widespread international condemnation and heightening inter-Korean tension.
Her administration’s later years were dominated by a corruption scandal: revelations emerged in October 2016 that Park had allowed her close confidante Choi Soon-sil — a private citizen with no government position — to access classified state documents, influence cabinet appointments, and extract approximately 70 billion won (around $60 million) in “donations” from major chaebol to foundations Choi controlled.
Mass candlelight protests — the Candlelight Revolution — brought millions of demonstrators to central Seoul over consecutive weekends from October to December 2016. The National Assembly voted to impeach Park on December 9, 2016, with 234 of 300 legislators voting in favor. The Constitutional Court unanimously upheld the impeachment on March 10, 2017, permanently removing her from office.
Park was convicted of bribery, abuse of power, and coercion, and ultimately sentenced to 22 years in prison. President Moon Jae-in — her 2012 opponent — pardoned her on December 24, 2021, citing humanitarian grounds related to her health.
Significance
The 2012 election demonstrated both the vitality and the fragility of South Korean democracy. A 75.8% turnout in a competitive, nationally televised race showed a politically engaged electorate; the subsequent NIS scandal, Park’s impeachment, and conviction showed the risks of concentrated executive power and compromised institutional independence.
Park’s election as the first female president was simultaneously a historic milestone and a reminder that South Korean women remained dramatically underrepresented in politics: the National Assembly was less than 16% female at the time, and Park’s ascent owed significantly to her political dynasty rather than to broader gender parity in the political system.
The closeness of the result — 51.55% versus 48.02% — reflected a deeply polarized electorate divided along generational, regional, and class lines, a division that would persist through subsequent electoral cycles.
See Also
- 2012 United States Presidential Election — the other major democratic contest of December 2012’s political season, similarly decided by a coalition-building incumbent
- Barack Obama — 2012 Re-election Victory — another 2012 electoral victory shaped by demographic coalition politics and historical significance
- Vladimir Putin — 2012 Return to Presidency — the major leadership transition in Northeast Asia’s neighboring great power, with direct implications for Korean security
- Malala Yousafzai — 2012 Shooting — another 2012 story foregrounding women’s prominent roles in global politics under extraordinary circumstances
- Kim Jong-un’s 2012 Leadership Consolidation in North Korea — the concurrent, hereditary leadership transition across the DMZ, a sharp contrast to the South’s democratic contest
- 2012 Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands Dispute — the concurrent Northeast Asian security flashpoint straining the trilateral U.S.–Japan–South Korea relationship